| Natural gas combined-cycle (NGCC) | Steady or flexible bulk electricity generation | $1,000–$1,700 | Net efficiency: approximately 50–62% (higher heating value); capacity factor depends on dispatch | Approximately 350–500 | Relatively efficient and dispatchable. Fuel-price exposure, pipeline access, methane supply-chain emissions, and cooling-water needs can affect project economics. | Air permits under the Clean Air Act; applicable greenhouse-gas requirements; water withdrawal and discharge permits; wetlands and local land-use approvals; gas pipeline and grid interconnection approvals. |
| Simple-cycle gas turbine | Peaking capacity, reserves, and rapid-response generation | $700–$1,200 | Net efficiency: approximately 30–40%; typically operates fewer hours than NGCC | Approximately 500–700 | Lower upfront cost and fast startup. Higher fuel use and emissions per MWh than combined-cycle plants; revenue may depend on capacity and ancillary-service markets. | Air permits and applicable emissions limits; noise and local siting review; gas supply and pipeline approvals; water, construction, and interconnection requirements as applicable. |
| Coal-fired steam plant | Dispatchable bulk generation where fuel and infrastructure are available | $4,000–$8,000 | Net efficiency: approximately 33–40%; capacity factor depends on market and operating constraints | Approximately 900–1,100 | Can provide firm output and use stored fuel. High capital and compliance costs, significant air pollutants and CO₂ emissions, and complex coal-ash and water management. | Clean Air Act permits and controls; Clean Water Act permits; coal-combustion residuals requirements; ash disposal and monitoring; water-use, land-use, and potentially mining or fuel-transport approvals. |
| Nuclear fission plant | Firm, low-carbon bulk generation | $6,000–$12,000+ | Net efficiency: approximately 32–37%; operating capacity factors are often high once commissioned | Approximately 0 at the point of generation | Very low operational CO₂ emissions and steady output. Very high upfront investment, long development and construction timelines, financing risk, and spent-fuel management needs. | Nuclear Regulatory Commission licensing, safety and security requirements; environmental review; emergency-planning requirements; radioactive-material and spent-fuel rules; water, land-use, and grid approvals. |
| Utility-scale solar photovoltaic | Daytime renewable generation | $800–$1,500 | Capacity factor: approximately 18–30%, depending on location, tracking, and design | 0 at the point of generation | No fuel cost and no combustion emissions during operation. Output varies with sunlight; land availability, transmission access, and storage or firming may affect project value. | Local land-use and construction permits; environmental and habitat review; stormwater requirements; interconnection and transmission approvals; additional permits for wetlands or protected areas where relevant. |
| Onshore wind | Renewable generation in suitable wind-resource areas | $1,300–$2,300 | Capacity factor: approximately 30–50%, depending on resource, turbine, and site | 0 at the point of generation | No fuel cost and no combustion emissions during operation. Resource variability, transmission availability, wildlife impacts, community acceptance, and distance to load are important siting factors. | Local zoning and construction approvals; environmental and wildlife review; aviation and radar review where applicable; interconnection approvals; federal land or protected-resource permits if triggered. |
| Grid-scale battery storage (4-hour system) | Energy shifting, peak support, frequency response, and renewable firming | $1,000–$2,000 per kW of power capacity | Round-trip efficiency: approximately 80–90%; duration and usable energy depend on system design | 0 at the site; emissions depend on the electricity used to charge it | Fast response and flexible siting; can shift electricity to higher-value hours. It is an energy-storage resource, not a primary generator, and requires charging energy, replacement planning, and fire-safety design. | Local building, electrical, fire-code, and land-use approvals; grid interconnection and market rules; environmental review and battery end-of-life planning as applicable. |
